Saturdays should not consist of schoolwork

But they do. At least for me today they do. You know it's going to be bad when your teacher's status (who is friends with you on facebook... go UMHB) says "my kids are going to hate me when they see the review I just put up".
I thought today I was just gonna chill and watch GLEE and probably hang with Jenna later on tonight. But for the past couple hours I've been doing this. Read through the beginning at least, I dare you.
Test #2 Review

Chapter 15:
• What are the 2 categories sense organs fall into?
• List examples of general and special senses
• What is the function of sensory receptors?
• Define receptor potential
• What do sensory impulses that end in the brainstem affect?
• What do sensory impulses that end in the thalamus affect?
• What do sensory impulses that end in the cerebral cortex affect?
• Define adaptation and give an example
• Define perception
• What are the differences in distribution of special sense receptors and general sense receptors?
• Define the two-point discrimination test
• What are the three categories of receptors based on location?
• Where are exteroceptors located and what senses do they detect?
• Where are visceroceptors located and what senses do they detect?
• Where are proprioceptors located and what senses do they detect?
• What are the two types of proprioceptors and what is the difference between them?
• What are the six categories of receptors based on stimulus detected?
o Know how each these receptors are stimulated
• What are the two categories of receptors based on structure?
• Define nociceptors
• What are the two types of nerve fibers that carry impulses from nociceptors to the brain?
o Know the difference between these two types of fibers
• What tissue of the body doesn’t contain nociceptors?
• Define referred pain
• Do thermoreceptors adapt quickly?
• Know the difference between how hot and cold react
• What are root hair plexuses and how are they activated?
• How are itch sensations generally caused?
• What is discriminative touch?
o What is it mediated by?
• What two cells make up the tactile receptor unit?
• What are tactile corpuscles?
• What are bulboid corpuscles?
• What are bulbous corpuscles?
• What are lamellar corpuscles?
• What are the two types of stretch receptors?
• Define stretch reflex
• Define golgi tendon reflex
• Define olfaction
• What three components make up the olfactory epithelium?
• What is the typical shape of olfactory neurons?
• Where is olfactory epithelium located?
o Explain why this makes it necessary to sniff to smell better
• Why do olfactory receptors undergo rapid adaptation?
• How are senses of smell and taste closely related?
• What are the sense organs for our sense of taste?
• Define gustation
• What are the four classes of taste buds based on structure?
• What is the name of a chemical that stimulates taste buds?
• What are gustatory cells?
• What are the five primary taste sensations?
• What are the three cranial nerves that are involved in transmitting signals for taste?
o Know which area of the tongue (or other structure) they transmit signals from
• Define flavor
• What two senses does the ear provide?
• What receptor in the ear is responsible for both of these senses?
• What are the three anatomical divisions of the ear?
• What are the two divisions of the external ear?
• What is the tympanic membrane?
• What are the three auditory ossicles?
• What are the openings of the middle ear?
• What is the function of the auditory or Eustachian tube?
• What are the two main parts of the inner ear?
o What structures are in each of these parts?
• What is endolymph?
• What is perilymph?
• What structure of the inner ear is the only one involved in hearing?
• What are the names of the two sections the cochlear duct divides the cochlea into?
• What is the roof of the cochlear duct called?
• What is the floor of the cochlear duct called?
• What is the organ of Corti?
• What is volume and pitch?
• The basilar membrane’s width is not uniform. What functional purpose does this serve?
• How are differences in volume perceived?
• Describe the pathway of sound waves from when they enter the external auditory canal to where they finally hit the round window
• Where are the sense organs for equilibrium located?
• Define static equilibrium
• Define dynamic equilibrium
• Define macula
• What are otoliths?
• Define righting reflexes
• What is the crista ampullaris?
• Define ophthalmology
• What are the four accessory structures of the eye?
• What are the three external eye structures?
• Define palpebrae
• Define conjunctiva
• Define palpebral fissure
• What is the function of the lacrimal apparatus?
• What is the function of the extrinsic eye muscles?
• What is the function of the intrinsic eye muscles?
o What are the muscles of this group?
• What are the three layers of tissues that compose the eyeball?
o Know the parts of each layer
• What is the cornea?
• What is the iris?
• What is the pupil?
• What is the retina?
• What three layers of neurons make up the sensory retina?
• What are the two types photoreceptor cells of the eye called?
• Why is the optic disk known as the blind spot?
• What are the 2 main cavities of the eyeball?
o What are the 2 subdivisions of the front most cavity?
• Define aqueous humor
• Define vitreous humor
• What causes glaucoma?
• What are the four processes focus light rays so that a clear image is formed on the retina?
• What are the refracting media of the eye?
• Define visual acuity
o Know what 20/20, 20/15 and 20/200 mean in terms of visual acuity
• What are common errors of refraction?
• What three changes must occur for near vision?
• How do the ciliary muscles affect lens shape?
• What causes eye strain?
• Define near reflex
• Define photopupil or papillary light reflex
• What is binocular vision and how is it achieved?
• What is convergence?
• What can all light-sensitive pigmented compounds be broken down into?
• What photopigment is found in rods?
• Does the brain perceive color or “black and white” vision from rods?
• What are the three types of cones?
• Does the brain perceive color or “black and white” vision from cones?
Chapter 16
• What system does the endocrine system work with to maintain homeostasis?
o Both of these system uses chemical messengers – what are the chemical messengers of the endocrine system called?
• What are the differences between endocrine and exocrine glands?
• What are neurosecretory cells?
• What are the two categories of hormone based on chemical structure?
• What important lipid are all steroid hormones made from?
• What are nonsteroid hormones primarily synthesized from?
• What are the three types of nonsteroid hormones?
• What is the “lock-and-key” mechanism in terms of hormones and receptors?
• Define signal transduction
• What are three ways in which groups of hormones can affect each other’s actions?
• What must steroid hormones attach to to be able to travel through the blood stream?
• Why are steroid hormone receptors known as the mobile-receptor model?
• What is the end result of steroid hormone action?
• What mechanism do nonsteriod hormones use to perform their action?
o What is another name for this mechanism?
• How do effects of second messenger system by nonsteroid hormones differ from the effects of steroid hormone mechanism?
o In terms of amplification and how quickly effects are seen
• What is another mechanism nonsteroid hormones act through
• Is most hormone secretion regulated through positive or negative feedback loops?
• Define endocrine reflexes
• What is the sensitivity of a target cell to a particular hormone dependent on?
• Define up-regulation
• Define down-regulation
• What are prostaglandins made from?
• Why are prostaglandins called tissue hormones?
• What is the overall function of all prostaglandins?
• What was the pituitary gland formerly called?
• What is the infundibulum?
• What are the two glands that make up the pituitary gland?
• What are the two portions of the adenohypophysis?
• What are the five categories of cells in the adenohypophysis based on what they secrete?
• What are the four ways in which growth hormone affects metabolism?
• What is the main function of prolactin?
• What is the function of a tropic hormone?
• What are the four principle tropic hormones secreted by basophils of the pars anterior?
• What is the function of gonadotropins?
• What are portal systems and why are they beneficial?
• What other structure secretes hormones that control hormone secretion of the adenohypophysis?
• Neurohypophysis is the storage and releasing site for what two hormones?
o What is the function of these two hormones?
• What is the principle hormones of the pineal gland?
• What two hormones make up the thyroid hormone?
o Which of these hormones is secreted in larger amounts?
o Which of these hormones is considered to be the principle hormone?
• What are the two overall effects of calcitonin?
• What hormone is an antagonist to calcitonin?
o What gland releases this hormone?
• Where are the adrenal glands located
• Define adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla
• What are the three layers of the adrenal cortex?
• What is the main function of aldosterone?
• How does the RAAS system help maintain blood pressure?
• What are the main effects of glucocorticoids?
• What kind of tissue makes up the adrenal medulla?
• What two important hormones does the adrenal medulla secrete?
• What is the name of the islands of cells that make up the endocrine portion of the pancreas?
o What four types of cells make up the islets and what do they secrete?
• What is the function of glucagon?
• What is the function of insulin?
• What hormone is somatostatin an antagonist to?
• What main hormone do the testes produce?
• What two main hormones do the ovaries produce?
• What main hormone does the placenta produce?
• What two hormones does the thymus produce?
• What three GI hormones did we discuss in lecture?
• What hormone does the heart produce?
Chapter 20
• What are the two most important functions of the lymphatic system?
• Define edema
• How do lymphatic vessels keep edema from occurring?
• What are the three components of the lymphatic system?
• What are six examples of lymphoid tissue?
• What is the main difference between the lymphatic and general circulatory systems?
• Define lymph
• Define interstitial fluid
• What are lymphatics?
• What are the two main lymphatic trunks?
o Which areas of the body drain into which of these ducts?
• What is the cistern chili?
• Lymphatic vessels resemble veins with three exceptions – what are these exceptions?
• What is the function of the numerous valves located all along the lymphatics?
• Do lymphatics have the ability to regenerate?
• Why is it advantageous for lymphatic vessels to be much more permeable than regular vessels?
• What is the general circulatory flow of lymph?
• Define lymphokinesis
• Since there is no “lymphatic heart” – what three main mechanisms keep lymph flowing, even against the flow of gravity in most cases.
• What are the 2 distinct functions of lymph nodes?
• How do lymph nodes perform as biological and mechanical filtration units?
• Define mastitis
• Define mastectomy
• What is the axillary tail in the breast and what is its clinical significant in terms of breast cancer and/or infections?
• Define tonsillitis
• What are the four groups of tonsils that make up the pharyngeal lymphoid ring?
• Define tonsillectomy
• Define involution
o What lymphatic organ undergoes this process?
• What are the two main functions of the thymus?
• What are the four functions of the spleen discussed in lecture?
• Define splenectomy
Chapter 21:
• Define antigens
• What are the two major immune mechanisms?
o What are some main differences between these two mechanisms?
o What types of cells do both of these mechanisms use?
• What is species resistance?
• What is involved in each of the three lines of defense of our immune system?
• What are the two main mechanical barriers of our immune system?
• Define chemotaxis
• What are four of the characteristic signs of inflammation?
• Define fever
• Why do we get chills when we have a fever?
• What are pyrogens?
• Why do COX inhibitors like aspirin have a fever-reducing effect?
• Define phagocytosis
• How does phagocytosis cross over into the adaptive immune mechanism?
• Define diapedesis
• what is pus?
• What are natural killer cells?
• What are the two receptors that NKCs recognize?
o If NKCs recognize both receptors on one cell, what happens?
o If NKCs recognize only the killer-activating receptor, what happens?
• Define apoptosis
• How does interferon interfere with the ability of a virus to cause disease?
• What is complement?
• In very general terms, what is the main function of toll-like receptors?
• What are the two groups of cells that are the main players in adaptive immunity?
• Define antibody-mediated immunity
o What cells are responsible for this?
o What is another name for this type of immunity?
• Define cell-mediated immunity
o What cells are responsible for this?
o What is another name for this type of immunity?
• Two signals must occur to have activation of lymphocytes – what are they?
• What is the general circulation of lymphocytes?
• Why is it important for lymphocytes to have a good survival value?
• After naïve B cells make antibodies, what do they do with them?
• Naïve B cells are activated when what occurs?
• What two types of cells B cells differentiate into after antigen-antibody binding?
• What is the function of effector B cells (plasma cells)?
• What is the function of memory B cells?
• What is another term for antibody?
• What is the general structure of an antibody?
• Define variable regions
o What purpose do these regions serve?
• What is the somatic recombination theory in terms of antibody diversity?
• How do mutations help in antibody diversity?
• What are the five classes of antibodies?
o Which is made after initial contact with an antigen?
o Which is the most abundant?
• What is the main function of antibodies?
• What are three main affects that the antigen-antibody complex can produce?
• One result of the complement activation is formation of membrane attack complexes (MACs)
o What are these complexes and what is the end result after their formation?
• What are three other functions of complement?
• Can complement be activated without the presence of antibodies?
• What is primary response and secondary response
• How do vaccines and booster shots use primary and secondary response to their advantage?
• What are the two basic principles of the clonal selection theory?
o How do antigens “seal their own fate” according to this theory?
• How do T cells get their name?
• How do T cells react with antigens?
o Compare them to how B cells react with antigens
• Once T cells are sensitized, what two types of T cells do they differentiate into?
• Define immunological synapse (IS)
• What are cytokines?
• What are the five examples of cytokines discussed in lecture?
• How do lymphotoxins kill a cell?
• What is the function of helper T cells?
• What is the function of suppressor T cells?
• What is the difference between natural and artificial immunity?
• What is the difference between active and passive immunity?

Sometimes college really sucks.